Cry, the Beloved Country, by Alan Paton :: Cry, The Beloved Country Essays

Cry The Beloved Country The quote But thither is only one thing that has ability completely, and that is love. Because when a military man loves he seeks no power, therefore he has power, as stated in the book in the book Cry the Beloved Country is not a true statement. No man has absolute power everywhere any one thing. Although hoi polloi seek power in many different places, there is only one true power, and that is God. There are many different levels of power in the world, but no level has complete power over anything else. Love is a power that God has given to man, but it cannot be applyled. Man doesnt have power over love. He can attempt for it in many different places, but the power he is searching for remains in God.A human has no control over their likes and dislikes. people cannot make something better or worse than it is. Love is the same. One cannot help it if they love something. People or things can touch a persons life, and they naturally grow to or lea rn to love it. There are different definitions of love, but the true definition lies with God.People can spend their full lives searching for more power. The thing that they must realize is that no amount of power will mean anything to God when it comes time for judgment. People base their lives too much on what material things they have, rather than what they have spiritually. They search for happiness in things like money and fame, but they are never fulfilled. It is impossible to start out happiness in things like money and fame. No one can obtain happiness in a place where happiness cannot be found. When people start living their lives for the Lord, they will be the ones who hold the power in heaven.God has power over all things, because he created them all. People have the pickaxe of turning the power in the direction that best suits them, but God controls what will happen when one does turn the power. No man can control sickness, death, or natural disasters. The only thin g that matters in mans life is what he does for the glory of God. The most important power that man has is the power of choice. Man has the choice to follow God.

Watchful Government in George Orwells 1984 Essay -- Supervision 1984

Watchful Government in George Orwells 1984No one likes being overly supervised and watched. Whether it is a teenager with protective parents or an adult in the workplace with an ever-watching boss the feeling of continuously being watched is unnerving. Throughout history the levels of government supervision have fluctuated from lows to extremes however sometimes the future seems to hold even more watchful governments. These were the feelings when George Orwell wrote the novel 1984. George Orwell showed a gentlemans gentleman without the freedoms that citizens in the get together States live with every day. From looking at the text of 1984 it is obvious how scary a world it is, however this would never be possible in the United States, where inhabitants are free to live a life without repression. From freedom of the press, to freedom of expression and speech, citizens of the United States live with freedoms that those portrayed in 1984 could only dream of. Throughout his book ther e were many instances that showed Orwells rival for the world to come. The hallway smelt of boiled cabbage and old rag mats. At one end of it a colored poster, too large for indoor(prenominal) display, had been tacked to the wall. It depicted simply an enormous face, more than a meter wide the face of a man of about forty-five with a heavy raw mustache and ruggedly handsome features. Winston made for the stairs. It was no use trying the lift. Even at the best of times it was seldom working, and at present the galvanising current was cut off during daylight hours. It was part of the economy drive in preparation for Hate Week. The flat was seven flights up, and Winston, who was thirty-nine and had a unhealthy ulcer above his right ankle, went slowly, resting several times on n... ...Big Br another(prenominal) was always watching. Nothing was right unless he said so, and therefore if anyone said anything other then what they were supposed to they would be tried and convicted of a crime. The individual would probably not even know the crime existed. We are lucky as citizens of the United States to have such a freedom. George Orwell predicted a future where an authoritative figure watched every move of every inhabitant. There was no freedom of expression, freedom of speech, and no freedom of the press. For breaking the simplest rule, whatever it may be, the punishment would be severe. Fortunately, George Orwells predictions of the future came to be untrue. In the United States we live in a society that has freedoms that inhabitants of the world in 1984 did not have. Most importantly, we have the freedom to be free, something George Orwell did not envision.

Discrimination Challenges Essay -- Racial Relations, Social Issues, Ha

Growing up in the previous(predicate) 1900s was not easy especially if you were a women and/or shady. Hansberry was both and with that, she faced discrimination challenges. As she grew as a women and writer, a person respected her more and saw her for more than her persist and the fact she was a woman. Throughout her life, she fought for her rights and stood up for a cause, until her early tragic death from cancer. Lorraine Hansberry grew up during the American Civil Rights movement, managed to overcome the hard times of segregation, the lack of womens rights, and the harsh criticism of the critics to become a salutary writer, which she used to thrust a difference for African Americans through all her writings.1Hansberry grew up in trying times with her two parents, from the beginning she cute to make a difference. Lorrain Vivian Hansberry was born in Chicago, Illinois, in 1930, to Carl A. Hansberry and Nanny Perry Hansberry and was the youngest of four children.(4) Throughout her childhood, thanks to her familys deep involvement in the black connection, she was surrounded by black politics, culture, and economics. Her father, a relator, was very active in the NAACP andher mother, a former schoolteacher, was a ward committeewoman(4) When she was eight her family moved into a white community but was later forced out. Hansberry learned another lesson in pride in 1938 when her father, risking jail, challenged Chicagos real estate convents, which legally upheld housing discrimination, by moving his own family into a white neighborhood. (4). Hansberry herself believed religion was a crutch and this belief is reflected in her near-dismissal of both Christianity and the native religion of Zatembe in Les Blancs. (Paper 2). Facing many ... ... in the Sun Canned Film Festavel special award and Screen Writers Guide nomination, both 1961, both for screenplay, A Raisin in the Sun. (http//libproxy.wcjc.cc.tx.us2368) (9)Hansberry was named the most promising playwri te of the season by Varietys poll of New York drama critics.(9)But most critics did not perceive Hansberry as a particulary political or black writer, but rather as one who dealt more with human universals. (9)With only a short amount of time spent in this world, Hansberry was able to make difference to many people inside and outside of the literature world. She stood up for her rights, which helped her find love and peace. Hansberry faced many tough challenges throughout her life from race discrimination to harsh critics on her books and plays but she believed in herself and took charge to try to make a difference.

Capital Punishment Must be Abolished :: The Case Against the Death Penalty

Crimes against children are the most heinous crime. That, for me, would be a reason for capital penalization... -- Clint EastwoodI could not become an American citizen. I would not like to become a citizen of a country that has capital punishment. -- Werner HerzogIn most of the industrialized world, capital punishment is not apply to punish criminals. However, it is still used in the United States. The capital punishment debate in the United States has raged for almost four hundred years. Supporters of capital punishment often cite its roles as deterrent and retribution as reasons for their support of the death penalty. Opponents of capital punishment cite its arbitrariness and finality as reasons for their opposition against the death penalty. Because capital punishment can lead to an unequal application of justice, sometimes to the point of executing innocent persons, no amount of argument from its supporters should encumber it from being abolished. The Arguments of Those Who Favor Capital Punishment Supporters of capital punishment begin by arguing that capital punishment deters murder. This view has been held for thousands of years. In his book The penalisation of Death, Thorsten Sellin notes what the famous 18th century English law commentator William Blackstone wrote in his Commentaries on the Laws of England As to the end or final cause of punishment, this is not by way of atonement...but as a prevention against future offenses of the same kind. This is effected three ways, either by the amendment of the offender...or by deterring others...or lastly by depriving the party injuring of the former to do future mischief. (Sellin 77) This sentiment was expressed by Socrates (in Gorgias) and by his antagonist Demosthenes some 2,000 years before Blackstone (Sellin 3-5). But what evidence is there to support the psyche that the death penalty deters potential murderers better than any other form of punishment? Until Professor Isaac Ehrlich released his study on this subject, only anecdotal evidence existed, and that had been provided by batch in the law enforcement, judicial, and corrections fields. By 1953, the Royal Commission on Capital Punishment in England noted ...capital punishment has obviously failed as a deterrent when a murder is committed. We can number its failures. But we cannot number its successes. No one can ever know how many people have refrained from murder because of the fear of being hanged.

Populists v Progressives Essay -- essays research papers

Populists v ProgressivesA governmental party is an organization whose aim is to gain control of the government apparatus, usually through the election of its candidates to everyday office. semipolitical parties take many forms, but their main functions are similar to supply personnel for government positions to organize these personnel around the formation and implementation of public policy and to serve in a mediating role between individuals and their government. Political parties are as old as organized political systems. Two parties in particular, the Populist Party and the Progressive Party are alike in many ways, from their platforms to their general issues. In general, however, the structure and behavior of a particular countrys political parties depends most heavily on the countrys political and cultural history.During the Panic of 1873 the Farmers Alliances agitated for railroad regulation, tax reform, and unlimited coinage of silver and attempted to influence the reali sed political parties. Growth was so rapid, however, that interest in a third party began to increase in 1891 delegates from farm and labor organizations met in Cincinnati. No close was made to form a political party, but when the Republican and Democratic parties both straddled the currency question at the 1892 presidential conventions, a convention was held at Omaha, and the Populist party was formed in 1892.&...

Populists v Progressives Essay -- essays research papers

Populists v ProgressivesA political party is an organization whose aim is to gain control of the government apparatus, usually by means of the election of its candidates to public office. Political parties take many forms, but their main functions are similar to supply personnel for government positions to organize these personnel approximately the formation and implementation of public policy and to serve in a mediating role between individuals and their government. Political parties are as old as unionized political systems. Two parties in particular, the Populist Party and the Progressive Party are alike in many ways, from their platforms to their general issues. In general, however, the structure and doings of a particular countrys political parties depends most heavily on the countrys political and cultural history.During the Panic of 1873 the Farmers Alliances agitated for railroad regulation, tax reform, and unlimited coinage of smooth-spoken and attempted to influence th e established political parties. Growth was so rapid, however, that interest in a third party began to increase in 1891 delegates from farm and bear on organizations met in Cincinnati. No decision was made to form a political party, but when the Republican and Democratic parties both straddled the currency question at the 1892 presidential conventions, a convention was held at Omaha, and the Populist party was formed in 1892.&...

Global sourcing Essay

1) What is orbiculate sourcing?Global sourcing is defined as the process of identifying, developing, and utilizing the source of release for the enterprise through expanding purchasing activities internationally. It is a part of raise reengineering activities which is an useful measure of cutting toll. Global sourcing is a typical example of foreign body structure outsourcing firms which process construction by distributing each process of construction work to vendors instead of running on its own.Such construction method not only does reduce cost in terms of managing construction sites much(prenominal) as labor cost and equipment cost including vehicles, but also is being adopted by various companies for value-adding construction management (CM) project. For instance, spheric sourcing was utilized when edifice Daewoo Business Center at Warszawa, Poland, on March, 1997. The process of erecting the center was alloted to vendors construction was executed by VOICE(England), des ign through RTKL(U.S.), facility management was responsibleness of Dongwoo which is a department of Daewoo Group, hotel management by Hilton hotel(U.S.).2) Global sourcing factorsGlobal sourcing factors that must be understood and balanced can be segmented into 5 categories. world-class factor is material cost. The bottom line of execution of world(a) sourcing is reduce cost by minimizing material cost. Another category is transportation cost. Various costs including inventory delivery cost can be dwindled through global sourcing. Moreover, significant amount of transportation expense can be reduced when merchandising products at outsourcing regions. Cross-border taxes, tariffs, and duty costs be third factor which form global sourcing. Instead of relying on domestic production but rather outsource each process internationally, costs can be reduce by avoiding trade barriers which include cross-border tax, tariff and duty cost.Next factor is supply and available performance. With effective resource management and cheap labor cost, supply and operational performance can be efficiently managed which enables global sourcing companies to manufacture high quality-low harm merchandises. The last category of global sourcing is supply and operational lay on the lines. Cultural and geographicaldisparities can yield additional costs much(prenominal) as labor cost and transportation cost. If not managed well, they can militate as huge risks in terms of conducting sourcing.3) Advantages of global sourcingThere be three major merits of performing global sourcing gumption to changes, reduction of cost, and trade barriers avoidance. To begin with, global sourcing allows a firm to develop capacity to cope with changes in market condition. Importing numerous tender materials and resources economically and steadily can be done through global sourcing. With such abundant resources, a firm can flexibly adopt to environmental alterations when confronting unexpected econom ic crisis. Secondly, average 20% of cost saving is possible. Components of products or raw materials procured from abroad is advantageous in terms of price. Furthermore, many countries such as American and Europe are sourcing materials to cut cost in terms of distribution industries.As a result, chinaware has be interpose the hub of production base for global sourcing. Even in case of Korea, sourcing products from China are 30%40% cheaper than Korean domestic goods. In particular, simple functional merchandizes whose design and quality are relatively less considered are largely influenced by global sourcing. Consequently, over 70% of commodities and clothes are merchandiseed from China. Last merit of global sourcing is scheme of trade barriers. In case of global sourced goods, the price is lower, leading to economical purchase, by avoiding trade barriers such tariffs and cross-border taxes. On top of that, firms are able to memorize restricted raw materials and resource. Thus, u nique and competitive products can be created.2. Case-Study (Li&Fung)1) IntroductionLi&Fung is a professional trading company which specializes in global sourcing and was founded in 1906. It functioned as a broker betwixt Asian manufacturers and foreign traders and expanded as a trading company later on. Today, Li&Fung acts as a professional sourcing and distribution firm focusing on toys and textile. Becoming an intermediary, it reconstructed thebusiness by forming it as a connection and manager of diverse supply chains. Li&Fung is the representative of smokeless factory without owning any equipment and factories regarding production process from raw material to final goods and distribution of final products.2) Business area / stick conditionLi&Fung won the rewards in Fabulous 50 selectied by Forbes Asia, 50 for 2012 from Morgan Stanley, and The most influential companies 25 from Business week. The sales of Li&Fung in 2007 was 92.4 billion in Hong Kong dollars, approximately 36% increase in sales compared to that of 2006.Net income reached 30 billion dollars(2007) and Li&Fung Co. Ltd. succeed in gaining 19.8% increase in sales (110.7 billion Hongkong dollars)than that of previous year. After 1998, foreign companies such as The Limited, Gymboree, American Eagle, Warner Brothers, Abercrombie & Fitch, Bed, Bath& Beyond, Tesco, Avon Products, Levi-Strauss, Reebok have become major customers of Li&Fung, and Royal Ahold, run a risk Jeans, Bebe also joined as major customers of Li&Fung in 2000. As a result, Li&Fung currently has 68 offices in the 38 countries, and shareholders numbers 17,900. In addition, it consists of 107,000 employees engaged in the business associated with Li&Fung, especially 40,000 related businesses only in the United States. Thus, it can be said that Li&Fung has entered plateau demo as a company settling new form of SCM rather than just being a simple trading firm.3) Platform / Operation clayLi&Fung is one of the enterprises which effect ively employ platform strategy. In terms of strategy, Li&Fung adequately balances SRM and CRM strategy to manage producers and customers. Li&Fung distributes textile component orders to vendors as soon as receiving orders from textile industries. It makes most of 15,000 subcontractors which are located around the globe. When producing a jacket, for example, Li&Fung procures materials from diverse vendors outshell is from Korea, Zipper from Japan, lining is done from Thailand, and trademarks and thread from Hongkong. fabric is dyed in Southern Asia, China sews, and finally quality inspection and packaging are done in Hongkong. Then, headquarter in Hongkong generally manages cash break away and value-added process.4) Success FactorsSuccess factors of Li&Fung can be categorized into three elements. The first factor is IT evolution. Through IT development, product lead time dwindled through forming meshing among producers and customers, and even efficiently manage vendors. Another fa cet is SRM and CRM, especially have strength on SRM. Li&Fung analyze customers needs and scrutinize supply chain to meet the desires. Since firms tend to focus on maximizing their capability instead of in accordance with needs, Li&Fung can otherwise endeavour to fortify supply chain or value chain for customers.In other words, the key role of Li&Fung is to direct manufacturers of supply chain to the mean direction. For that specific purpose, it establishes education to producers on scattered web management rather than having strict control dodging for managing vendors, and emphasizes on trust and active empowerment. Lastly, Li&Fung follows 30/70 rule, which is to set a standard(from 30% to 70% of total production) on production quota to Li&Fung.This enables Li&Fung to have loose liaison among subcontractors. Minimum 30% of total production allows Li&Fung to possess minimum supply from each subcontractors and prevention vendors from being subordinates can be done by setting supr eme 70%. The core objective of this principle is to assure vendors of gaining huge profit from being a member of the network and on the other hand guaranteeing tractableness of business and availability of a room for growth. Other vendors also benefit from the principle by being expose to opportunities to work with others, which help them to learn and come up with innovative ideas. Such principle demonstrates value of Li&Fung on making supply chain more dynamic and lively. Thus, change in partners oft happens in supply chain of Li&Fung. In conclusion, Li&Fung directs contradictory management of pursuing stable and long-term partnership whereas also demanding loose network instead to forming strict organization.3. Problem & Solution1) Wage stagnation / Pricing pressureThe first problem of Li&Fung is wage stagnation of China. China accounts for 60% of total global sourcing of Li&Fung, which means that shift in China impact Li&Fung heavily. After the economic liberalization of China , China has been able to draw off world companies as the most suitable production base due to cheap and abundant labor. As a consequence of substantial growth, Chinas wage has been increasing 16% annually. As labor cost takes up the largest portion of garment industrys costs, Li & Fungs first half(prenominal) of 2011 net income dwindled 18%. Therefore, there is high necessity for finding a new production base(a new partners) and gain price competitiveness through such measure. Second problem is overseas buyers desire to lower supply pricing due to high uncertainty from global recession. As shown in the average import price of textile in the U.S. graph on the right, the average import price has been continually decreasing, from $3.18 in 2006 to $3 in 2009. Heavy pressure on supply pricing is having negative impact on net income of Li&Fung.2) China & U.S Trade departureThird adversity is potential trade disputes between the United States and China. This trade conflict, which is ref erred to as protectionism, is noteworthy of a notice as 69% of total production of Li&Fung is sold to the United States. The United States has criticized China on the currency exchange rate manipulation, along with accusation of exchange dumping. In addition, Section 421 is an article which can be executed in a situation where increased import of Chinese products acts as a severe damage to American domestic industries. Accordingly, it is inevitable to exclude potential trade conflict between two countries on account of high possibility of implementing additional countervailing duty by executing section 421.3) Expanding partners in Southern AsiaIn preparedness for deterioration of Chinas production environment and falling competitiveness of China as a sourcing region, Southern Asia is evaluated as the most practical substitute(a) for strategic sourcing of Li&Fung. In terms of percentage change in world textile industry sourcing, diminution of China is noticeable, as 7%, whereas Vie tnam and Bangladesh show growth, respectively displaying 1% and 20% of sourcing uprising rate.To demonstrate suitability of sourcing to Banladesh, environment of Bangladesh such as social understructure and facilities, and educational level should be thoroughly examined. Nevertheless, wage of Bangladesh is much cheaper than that of China, Bangladesh being one third that of China, in terms of only considering unit labor cost. Furthermore, Bangladesh is likely to be significantly equipped with garment-industry infrastructure judging from the large number of textile industries sourcing to Bangladesh. Therefore, it is no hasty conclusion that Bangladesh is the most appropriate region for new production base of Li&Fung.4) step management systemControlling over 15,000 vendors is demanding and the possible drawback is failure of consistency in quality. Since quality is prerequisite these days, stricter vendors quality management system should be made. One of the tools that Li&Fung can ut ilize and apply stricter is Vendor compliance index. There are six indexes Li&Fung should keep forethought to efficient operation, productivity, process innovation, ensuring the quality, purchase the appropriate law material, and good working condition of labor. By balancing and fulfilling following vendor compliance indexes, Li&Fung give be able to afford products to customer with coherent quality. 4. ConclusionThe concept having used by Li&Fung is highly familiar to us as global sourcing is also deployed by domestic companies such as Samsung and LG. Global sourcing can be divided into two factors risk element and opportunity element. These two elements are in trade-off relation which means that change in one element accompanies the other, while endeavoring to maximize opportunity element. Thus, taking advantage of opportunity and risk element in a timely manner is the premise for successful global sourcing and in-depth analysis on local region and strategy should be followed whe n implementing global sourcing.

Balance Sheet and Income Statement

Individual Assignment comebackweight Sheet and Income report Commentary Publicly traded companies atomic number 18 entities that are allow for the offering of its registered securities. This allows them to become traded over a one stock exchange or over the counter market. This process allows for companies to gauge how much the union is truly worth compared to other companies in the same sports stadium or boilers suit. This gives some(prenominal) inherent advantages over some of the privately traded ones such as being able to reach debt markets and the selling of future equity.However, this also takes away from the overall control from the majority of its owners and corporation fo on a lower floors. there are m whatsoever different types of companies that transcend under this category. They range from anywhere between trucking to retail and anything in between. These companies are traded constantly with their stocks overtaking up and down based on how quite a little fe el about the caller-up. The four areas that are focused in this paper are manufacturing, trucking, retail (grocery), and mortgages. AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI) is a manufacturing go with that develops ways to package different things.The ships partnership prides itself on the plastic is creates and uses for this process. This caller-up is very similar to that of Riordan Manufacturing. Both companies have develop their own plastic materials that are used for different things. According to the Balance Sheet, The shareholders equity dipped in 2011 and rose drastically in 2012. This is most likely do to the increase of assets and liabilities. In the Income disceptation, the overall gross profit change magnitude from 2011 to 2012 by over 50,000. The net income also almost doubled from 2011 to 2012. Though the trade value of this companys stock has dropped to . 1 under the profit line, the company has continued to show growth from category to year. AMERCO (UHAL) is a company that specializes in trucking/transporting items across any distance. It gives most of its power to the individuals who hire the company giving them the power to control when and where they are shipping their materials. Overall the company is looking at a profit. It is soon at 1. 67 and rising. The companys Income statement shows that the company is slowly however steadily continuing its growth. It gained about 100,000 gross profit last year and does not show signs of slowing down.The overall net income came to about 21,000 in one year. The balance sheet also shows that the total assets and liabilities have grown and that it has increase the overall equity of the company for the shareholders. Arden pigeonholing Inc. is a holding company that operates seventeen full-service supermarkets in Southern California. The company itself carries two perishable and grocery products. The company is currently lost about 2. 20 today. According the Balance Statement, the assets of the company from 2 011 to 2012 dropped by just about half the amount, the biggest cause seems to be the little call investments.The short term investments in 2011 where 30, 413 and in 2012 it is 1,759. That is nearly 80% in one year. It seems that people have strayed away from this company when it comes to short term investments. This caused the equity of the company to be cut in half. In the Income statement, on the other hand, shows a steady growth of profit. The company is fashioning money even without the short term investments. Nationalstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. is the nations star(p) mortgage service. It offers its supplies directly to the consumers. According to the Balance Sheet, the company has grown leaps and bounds.In 2011, the company was looking at little under 2 million total assets, but in 2012 that number grew to over 7 million. The company is growing drastically and based on the previous 2 years does not seem to be slowing down. The liability and the equity has grown in conjunct ion with the assets. The Income Statement shows also an impressive increase in net income. The company is growing and making a lot of money with it. The 2011 net income was 20,887. This number ballooned to 205,287 total net income. In conclusion, these four companies are publically traded and are very successful in their own way.Nationstar has grown the greatest and seems to be able to continue to grow in the mortgage field. Arden and AEP are both growing company possibly going through growing pains and will be able to come out stronger. Finally, AMERCO is a strong company based in the right field and will continue to grow. References AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=AEPI+Balance+Sheet&annual AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=AEPI+Income+Statement&annual AMERCO (UHAL). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? =UHAL+Balance+Sheet&annual AMERCO (UHAL). (2013). Retrieve d from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=UHAL+Income+Statement&annual Arden Group Inc. (ARDNA). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=ARDNA+Balance+Sheet&annual Arden Group Inc. (ARDNA). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=ARDNA+Income+Statement&annual Nationstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. (NSM). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=NSM+Balance+Sheet&annual Nationstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. (NSM). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=NSM+Income+Statement&annualBalance Sheet and Income StatementIndividual Assignment Balance Sheet and Income Statement Commentary Publicly traded companies are entities that are allow for the offering of its registered securities. This allows them to become traded over a one stock exchange or over the counter market. This process allows for companies to gauge how much the company is truly worth compared to other companies in the same field or overall. This gives some inherent adv antages over some of the privately traded ones such as being able to reach debt markets and the selling of future equity.However, this also takes away from the overall control from the majority of its owners and company founders. There are many different types of companies that fall under this category. They range from anywhere between trucking to retail and anything in between. These companies are traded constantly with their stocks going up and down based on how people feel about the company. The four areas that are focused in this paper are manufacturing, trucking, retail (grocery), and mortgages. AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI) is a manufacturing company that develops ways to package different things.The company prides itself on the plastic is creates and uses for this process. This company is very similar to that of Riordan Manufacturing. Both companies have develop their own plastic materials that are used for different things. According to the Balance Sheet, The shareholders equit y dipped in 2011 and rose drastically in 2012. This is most likely do to the increase of assets and liabilities. In the Income Statement, the overall gross profit increased from 2011 to 2012 by over 50,000. The net income also almost doubled from 2011 to 2012. Though the trade value of this companys stock has dropped to . 1 under the profit line, the company has continued to show growth from year to year. AMERCO (UHAL) is a company that specializes in trucking/transporting items across any distance. It gives most of its power to the individuals who hire the company giving them the power to control when and where they are shipping their materials. Overall the company is looking at a profit. It is currently at 1. 67 and rising. The companys Income statement shows that the company is slowly but steadily continuing its growth. It gained about 100,000 gross profit last year and does not show signs of slowing down.The overall net income came to about 21,000 in one year. The balance sheet also shows that the total assets and liabilities have grown and that it has increased the overall equity of the company for the shareholders. Arden Group Inc. is a holding company that operates seventeen full-service supermarkets in Southern California. The company itself carries both perishable and grocery products. The company is currently lost about 2. 20 today. According the Balance Statement, the assets of the company from 2011 to 2012 dropped by nearly half the amount, the biggest cause seems to be the short term investments.The short term investments in 2011 where 30, 413 and in 2012 it is 1,759. That is nearly 80% in one year. It seems that people have strayed away from this company when it comes to short term investments. This caused the equity of the company to be cut in half. In the Income statement, on the other hand, shows a steady growth of profit. The company is making money even without the short term investments. Nationalstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. is the nations le ading mortgage service. It offers its supplies directly to the consumers. According to the Balance Sheet, the company has grown leaps and bounds.In 2011, the company was looking at little under 2 million total assets, but in 2012 that number grew to over 7 million. The company is growing drastically and based on the previous 2 years does not seem to be slowing down. The liability and the equity has grown in conjunction with the assets. The Income Statement shows also an impressive increase in net income. The company is growing and making a lot of money with it. The 2011 net income was 20,887. This number ballooned to 205,287 total net income. In conclusion, these four companies are publicly traded and are very successful in their own way.Nationstar has grown the greatest and seems to be able to continue to grow in the mortgage field. Arden and AEP are both growing company possibly going through growing pains and will be able to come out stronger. Finally, AMERCO is a strong company based in the right field and will continue to grow. References AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=AEPI+Balance+Sheet&annual AEP Industries Inc. (AEPI). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=AEPI+Income+Statement&annual AMERCO (UHAL). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? =UHAL+Balance+Sheet&annual AMERCO (UHAL). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=UHAL+Income+Statement&annual Arden Group Inc. (ARDNA). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=ARDNA+Balance+Sheet&annual Arden Group Inc. (ARDNA). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=ARDNA+Income+Statement&annual Nationstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. (NSM). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/bs? s=NSM+Balance+Sheet&annual Nationstar Mortgage Holdings Inc. (NSM). (2013). Retrieved from http//finance. yahoo. com/q/is? s=NSM+Income+Statement&annual

Environmental Resources Worksheet Essay

Using the assigned readings from Week Four, write a 50- to 75-word response to each of the following questions.Your responses will be assessed according to the accuracy of the content.minerals1. How do minerals preserve hunting lodge?Minerals have aided in the continuous growth of developing nations and also, had ample mineral deposits that enabled them to industrialize (Berg, 2013). However, as a consequence of industrialization, these countries largely depleted their domestic reserves of minerals so that they must increasingly turn to developing countries (Berg, 2013). Also, minerals affect the global economy. For example, China controls more than 90 percent of the global supply of rare earth metallic elements, has also reduced its exports to other countries, in a mint that could affect market prices (Berg, 2013).2. What is the difference between metallic and metalloid minerals?Provide two examples from each category and discuss their uses. Minerals are divided into two catego ries metals and nonmetallic minerals. Metals are malleable, lustrous, and good conductors of heat and electricity, while nonmetallic metals lack these characteristics (Berg, 2013) . Gold is a metal used for currency and iron is a metal used for steel buildings. Gypsum is a nonmetal that is used for drywall. Silicon is other nonmetal that is used for electronic devices.Mining1. How are minerals extracted from the Earth and processed? in that respect are two ways to extract minerals from the Earth, either surface mining or subsurface mining. Surface mining is done when minerals are closer to the surface. undersea mining is used when the minerals are too deep to be removed by surface mining. Smelting is the process in which ore is melted at high temperatures to go impurities from the molten metal (Berg, 2013). 2. What are the different ways minerals feces be mined? Provide a briefdescription of at least leash types of mining. What exploit does extracting minerals have on the mil ieu? Other than land damage, extracting minerals causes air pollution of the air, daub, and water. Also, it destroys flora and causes body politic erosion. Possibly most valuablely it affects the water supply. Mineral extraction exposes large areas of dissolved noxious substances to precipitation, greatly accelerating polluted runoff (Berg, 2013).Soil3. What is your definition of soil? What is soil composed of? Why is soil important to the environs?Soil is the uppermost layer of the Earth and supports life on earth. Soil is composed of four parts mineral particles, organic matter, water, and air. Soil is very(prenominal) important to the environment because various organisms look on soil for life and supports virtually all terrestrial food webs (Berg, 2013). 4. What types of organisms are found in soil? Determine the relationship between soil and organisms. Ants, moles, snakes, and earthworms are just a small number of the umpteen organisms that are found in soil.Essentiall y, organisms and soil depend on each other to remain balanced. Organisms that live in soil provide ecosystem serve, such as maintaining soil fertility, preventing soil erosion, breaking down toxic materials, and cleansing water (Berg, 2013). 5. What is soil erosion? How can soil become polluted? What effect does soil erosion and pollution have on the environment? Soil erosion is the wearing outside(a) or removal of soil from the land (Berg, 2013). Being that soil erosion reduces the amount of soil in an area, vegetation growth can become very limited. As a result, it disrupts the balance of the ecosystem by eliminating food sources. 6. What is the purpose of soil reclamation?Soil reclamation can be executed by (1) stabilizing the land to prevent further erosion and (2) restoring the soil to its former fertility. To stabilize the land, the bare ground is seeded with plants that at last grow to cover the soil, holding it in place (Berg, 2013). Once the soil is returned back to its original state, the land can be used again.Forestry and Rangeland Resources and Management Strategies7. furcate between government-owned and public lands. Which government agencies are involved with government-owned lands? What is the purpose of government-owned lands? Government owned lands provide vital ecosystem services that benefit humans living far from public forests, grasslands, deserts, and wetlands (Berg, 2013). These places include national parks and provide protection for endangered species and flood and erosion control. Public land is available for recreational purposes such as hiking, swimming and boating. 8. Why is the forest an important ecosystem? What is your definition of forest management? What is its purpose? Describe the concept of sustainable forestry. The forest is an important ecosystem because it provides many goods and services to support human society (Berg, 2013). They also provide employment for millions of people worldwide. Forest management is the ma naging of timber production.The purpose of forest management is to produce as much timber as possible. 9. What effect does the harvesting of trees and deforestation have on forests and the environment? Is there a preferred system for harvesting trees? Explain. both the harvesting of trees and deforestation result in decreased soil fertility (Berg, 2013). The vital minerals that are needed by soil are washed away because there are no trees to absorb them. Also, this takes away food sources and shelter for various organisms. This disrupts the delicate balance of ecosystems. Selective cutting, is when a small group of raise tress are individually cut or in small clusters. This means that the rest of the forest is left undisturbed.However, this method is expensive and does not cause timber needed quickly enough. 10. What is a rangeland? Describe rangeland degradation and desertification. What effect does degradation and desertification have on the environment? Is there a preferred me thod for harvesting trees? Explain. Rangelands are grasslands, in both temperate and tropical climates, that serve as important areas of food production for humans by providing fodder for parentage such as cattle, sheep, and goats (Berg, 2013). Degradation is both a natural and a human-induced process that decreases the future ability of the land to support crops or livestock (Berg, 2013).Desertification is advanced degradation that produces desert-like conditions on land that was used previously and was plentiful. 11. What isovergrazing? What effect does this have on rangelands? What strategies can be employed for managing and conserving forests and rangelands? Overgrazing is a situation that occurs when too many grazing animals consume the plants in a particular area, leaving the vegetation destroyed and unable to recover (Berg, 2013). When rangelands are overgrazed, plants die, the ground is left barren, and the exposed soil is susceptible to erosion (Berg, 2013). The rangelands have to be taken care of by practicing techniques that are environmentally friendly.Agriculture12. What is the difference between industrialized and subsistence gardening? What effect do these methods have on the environment? Industrialized agriculture are modern boorish methods that require large capital inputs and less land and beat back than traditional methods (Berg, 2013). Subsistence agriculture supports on the farmer and their family with little reserves. Industrialized agriculture causes pollution and lowers an ecosystems biodiversity. Subsistence agriculture relies on more human and animal beat back and has a much smaller impact on the environment. 13. What is one agricultural challenge, other than soil erosion, that society faces? Explain your answer. One agricultural challenge that society faces is the lost of agricultural land. Countries are starting to expand and grow rapidly.With so much space being needed for expansion, this takes land that could have been used f or agricultural purposes. The loss of rural land means that food will have to travel longer and use more resources to do so. 14. How would you describe sustainable agriculture? How does it affect the environment? In regards to agriculture, what are the advantages and disadvantages involved with genetic engineering? I would describe sustainable agriculture as agriculture that is better for the environment and leaves less of a footprint on the Earth.It also promotes high diversity. It has minimal long term impacts on the environment by victimization less pesticides and using biological diversity instead (predator-prey relationship). The advantage of genetic engineering is that any organism can be used and it takes less time to engineer another breed. The disadvantage is that there is yet to be seen what long term effectsgenetic engineering has on the environment or on humans.Works CitedBerg, L. (2013). Visualizing environmental Science (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ John Wiley & Sons.

Statistics Course Notes

Defining What Statistics Re completely(prenominal)y Is 1. 1 Nature of Statistics The promissory g everyplacenment none Statistics came from the Latin word status which could be translated as state. The usage of this term wholly became popular during the 18 th century where they defined Statistics as the science of dealing with info about the condition of a state or community. The practice of statistics could be traced back even from the early biblical times where they gather figures related to governance of the state for they cognise the importance of these figures in governing the race.Even until today, worldwide, governments watch intensified their information gathering and even widen the scope of their numerical figures delinquent to the rise of to a greater extent cost-efficient regularitys for compendium selective information. slightly of the most popular figures that be being released by almost all countries atomic pattern 18 Gross National Product (GNP), B irth rates, Mortality Rates, Unemployment Rate, Literacy Rates and alien Currency Exchange Rates. Also, the enjoyment of Statistics is non limited to government engross totally. Right right away, almost all business sectors and fields of study use statistics.Statistics serves as the guiding principle in their decision making and helps them come up with sound actions as supported by the analysis d mavin in their on tap(predicate) information. Indicated below ar some of the uses of Statistics in non-homogeneous fields Medicine Medical exploreers use statistics in test the feasibility or even the susceptibility of newly developed drugs. Statistics is similarly utilize to understand the spread of the disease and study their prevention, diagnosis, prognosis and treatment (Epidemiologarithmy).JDEUSTAQUIO 1 Economics Statistics aids Economists analyze supranational and local check outets by estimating some Key Performance Indicators (KPI) such as unemployment rate, GNP/GD P, amount of exports and imports. It is also utilise to forecast economic fluctuations and trends. tell onet Research derives statistics by conducting pursues and attack up decisions from these statistics through feasibility studies or for testing the marketability of a new product.Manufacturing use statistics to assure the quality of their products through the use of take and testing some of their outputs Accounting/Auditing uses taste techniques in statistics to examine and settle their financial books. Education Educators use statistical manners to determine the validity and reliability of their testing procedures and evaluating the performance of t from apiece oneers and disciples. 1. 2 Basic Concepts We normally hear the word statistics when people atomic matter 18 guggleing about basketball or the vital statistics of beauty contestants.In this mount the word statistics is used in the plural form which simply means a numerical figure. But the field of Statistics is non only limited to these simple(a) figures and archiving them. In the context of this course, the definition of Statistics is mainly about the study of the theory and applications of the scientific systems dealing all about the data and making sound decisions on this. Statistics is the branch of science that deals with the sight, investation, organization, analysis and exposition of data. Sometimes, gathering the entire sight of constituents is very tedious, expensive or even timeconsuming.Because of this data gatherers sometimes re mannequin to collect bonnie a portion of the entire collection of component parts. The term coined for the entire collection of elements is called people while the sub discipline of the world is hangred as the Sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 2 Population is the collection of all elements under conside symmetryn in a statistical inquiry while the experiment is a subset of a community. THINK Could you say that the entire existence is also a atte mpt? The specification of the creation of interest depends upon the scope of the study.Lets say that if we wish to know the average expenditure of all nursing homes in electron tube Manila, thusly the population of interest is the collection of all households in vacuum tube Manila. If there is a need to delimit the scope of the study due to some constraints, we could redefine the population of interest. We could delimit the scope of the study to only specific city in Metro Manila. With this the study would only include the collection of all households in ________ City. The elements of the population is not only limited to individuals, it flush toilet be objects, animals, geographic areas, in other words, almost eachthing.Some fonts of practical populations are the set of laborers in a certain manufacturing plant, the set of foreigners residing on Boracay for a certain day, set of Ford Fiesta produced in the entire Philippines on a month. In any studies involving the use of Statistics, there would be at least one attribute of the element in the population which we would be analyse. This attribute or peculiarity is what we call variable. Just like in the field of Mathematics, we normally denote a variable with a whizz capital letter i. e. A, X, Z.The variable is a characteristic or attribute of the elements in a collection that lav assume different value for the different elements. While an observation is a realized value of the variable, and the collection of these observations is called the data. sheath The Department of Health is elicit in determining the percentage of children below 12 years old infected by the Hepatitis B virus in Metro Manila in 2006. Population Set of all children below 12 years old in Metro Manila in 2006 Variable of Interest whether or not the child has ever been infected by the Hepatitis B virus.Possible Observations Infected, Never Infected Regardless(prenominal) of whether all element of the data on the population or model is used, it is often still knockout to convey meaning to these observations is not summarized. This is the JDEUSTAQUIO 3 reason why it is important to condense these observations to a hit figure to completely describe the entire data. This condensed value is what we call summary vizor. The parameter is a summary judge describing a specific characteristic of a population while a statistic is a summary measure describing a specific characteristic of the sample. . 3 handle of Statistics There are devil major fields in Statistics. The archetypical one is (i) utilize Statistics, this deals mainly with the procedures and techniques used in the collection, presentation, organization, analysis and description of data. On the other hand, the second one is (ii) Mathematical Statistics, which is concerned with the development of the mathematical foundations of the methods used in Applied Statistics. In this course, we would mostly deal with the basics of Applied Statistics. Th is field could also by sub-divided into two areas of interest.These two are Descriptive and Inferential Statistics. Both are definitive of their names. Descriptive Statistics includes all the techniques used in organizing, summarizing, and presenting the data on hand, while Inferential Statistics includes all the techniques used in analyzing the sample data that leave alone lead to generalizations about a population from which the sample came from. To clarify, we whitethorn use descriptive statistics for population data or sample data. If we are dealing with population data, hence the results of the study are applicable only to the defined population.In the same manner, if we use descriptive statistics to sample data, then the conclusions are applicable only to the hireed sample. JDEUSTAQUIO 4 1. 4 Statistical research Statistical Inquiry is a designed research that provides information needed to solve a research problem. Oftentimes, researchers put forward now find an appropri ate statistical technique that go forth help them answer their research problems. This is because o the wide array of applications of the various statistical techniques used in a statistical inquiry. Below is the diagram show the entire military operation of statistical inquiry.Step 1 Identify the Problem Plan the Study Collect the Data Explore the Data Analyze Data and fancy the Results Present the Results Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 Step 6 JDEUSTAQUIO 5 Theory without data is in force(p) an Opinion 2. 1 Measurement The data used for statistical analysis should always be accurate, complete, and up-todate because the information that we would get is only as levelheaded as the data that we have. Good quality data comes at a cost but if we have the assurance of obtaining innate information that answers our research problem then it is all worth it.Measurement is the process of determining the value or differentiate of the variable based on what has been observed. Natural ly, our interpretation of the values in our data will depend on the metre system or the rule that we used to assign the values to the different categories of the variable. In limited, it will depend on the kindred among the values used in the system. The general gradification used to describe the types of relationship among these values or categories is what is known as take come ins of quantity. The four levels of measurement are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio level.It is requisite to know the level of measurement used to measure a variable because this will help in the interpretation of the values of the variables and choosing the sui turn off statistical technique to use in the analysis. Ratio level of measurement has all of the following properties a) the numbers in the system are used to programify a person/object into distinct, nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories b) the system arranges the categories according to magnitude c) the system has a fixed unit o f measurement representing a standard size throughout the racing shell and d) the system has an absolute slide fastener.JDEUSTAQUIO 6 Some examples of variables with ratio level of measurement are 1. Distance traveled by a car (in km) 2. Height of a flag pole (in metres) 3. Weight of a whole dressed chicken (in kilograms) Now we will discuss each of the properties that is required for a measuring collection plate to have in order for it to be affected as having a ratio level of measurement a) The numbers in the system are used to varietyify a person/object into distinct nonoverlapping, and exhaustive categories. This outgrowth condition requires that we use categories that would perpetrate the observations logically into one and only one category.This means that two objects assigned the same value must break in the same category and be placed in a different category if the characteristics of interest is really different. b) The system arranges the categories according to mag nitude. This second property requires that the measurement system must arrange the categories according to either ascending or descending order. c) The system has a fixed unit of measurement representing a standard size throughout the scale. The third property requires the scale to use a unit of measure that depicts a fixed and determinate quantity.This means that a one-unit digression must have the same interpretation wherever it appears in the scale. d) The system has an absolute zero. The fourth property requires the measurement system to have an absolute zero or the true zero point. This means that the scale considers the value, 0 (zero) as the complete absence of the characteristic itself. One example of this is any monetary measurement where zero means that there is absolutely no money. Interval Level of Measurement satisfies only the first three conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The only inconsistency of the interval level of measurement to the ratio level of me asurement is the absence of the absolute zero value. This means that the interval level of measurement considers 0 (zero) as a value like any other numbers and not as the absence of JDEUSTAQUIO 7 the characteristic of interest. The most common example of this is measuring temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit where the value zero does not mean that there is no temperature. Ordinal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first two conditons of the ratio level of measurement.The ordinal level of measurement only uses a scale that ranks or orders the observed values in either ascending or descending order. The interval or simply the difference of the scale from one point to another does not need to be be all throughout the scale. For example the ranking of the student in class according to their alumnas could be tagged as 1 st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and so on. The difference of the grade between the 1st student and the 2nd placed student does not need to be of the same gap between the 4 th pl acer and the 5th placer.Nominal Level of Measurement satisfies only the first property of the ratio level of measurement. The nominal level of measurement is the weakest level of measurement among the four. This is because its only aim is to classify the values into separate categories without regards to the ordering of these categories in ascending or descending manner. Most often, this level of measurement uses non-quantifiable categories like the different religions, zip code or the student number. 2. 2 Collecting Data 2. 2 . 1 Data Collection Methods The most commonly used methods for collecting data are i. Use of Documented Data, ii. ) flocks, iii. ) Experiments, and iv. ) Observation. Use of Documented Data It is not necessary to use original data in conducting studies sometimes it would make things easier if the researcher uses the data that is already available if there is such one sui elude for the study. The only dilemma with using documented data is its reliability and v eracity. Therefore, the researcher must look closely on the source of this data to have a measure on the reliability JDEUSTAQUIO 8 of the data that would be used.Also, these documented data can be categorized in to two, the primary data and the secondary data. primary(a) Data are data documented by the primary source, meaning, the data collectors themselves documented the data. Secondary Data are data documented by a secondary source, meaning, an individual/agency, other than the data collectors, documented the data. Surveys Another common method of collecting data is the survey. The people who answer the headlands in a survey are called the answerings. This method is much to a greater extent expensive than collecting data using documented stuff.Another problem of using surveys is that reliability of the data depends mainly on the survey process itself, either from the respondent, the survey design, questionnaire or if it is a personal interview there energy be a problem with th e interviewer if he/she lacks training. The Survey is a method of collecting data on the variable/s of interest by asking people questions. When data came from asking all the people in the population, then it is called numerate. On the other hand, when the data came from asking a sample of people choo devourd from a well-defined population, the it is called a sample survey.Experiments If the researcher is interested in something that involves cause-and-effect relationship, conducting the experiment is most likely the suitable way of collecting data. The most common experiment that is normally conducted during the primary level is the mongo cipherd experiment. The aim of this experiment is to see the relationship of the growth of the mongo in relation with sunlight exposure, amount of water and the type of soil. The Experiment is a method of collecting data where there is direct human intervention on the conditions that may affect the values of the variable of interest.Observation Method The Observation Method is a method of collecting data on the phenomenon of interest by recording the observations made about the phenomenon as it existingly happens. JDEUSTAQUIO 9 The observation method is useful in studying the reactions and behavior of individuals or groups of persons/objects in a given situation or environment as it happens, For example, a researcher may use the observation method to study the behavior patterns of an indigenous tribe which is difficult to be gathered using the other methods. 2. 2. 2 The QuestionnaireThe questionnaire is an instrument for measuring which is used in various data collection methods (commonly used in surveys). The questionnaire may either be selfadministered or interview-based which are both explanatory of their names. 2. 2. 2. 1 Type of Questions ? A Closed-ended question is a type of question that includes a list of resolution categories from which the respondent will aim his/her answer. ? An open(a)-ended question is a type of question that does not include response categories. Comparison of Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions Open-Ended ?Respondent can freely answer ? Can Elicit feeling and emotions of the respondent ? Can crack new ideas and views that the researcher might not have considered ? Good for complex issues ? Good for questions whose potential responses are unknown ? Allow respondents to clarify answers ? Get detail answers ? Shows how respondent think ? ? ? ? Closed-Ended Facilitates tabulation of responses Easy to code and analyze Saves time and money High response rate since it is simple and quick to answer ? solution categories make questions easy to understand ?Can repeat the study and easily make comparisons JDEUSTAQUIO Advantages 10 Disadvantages ? Difficult to tabulate and code ? High refusal late because it requires more than ? ? ? ? ? Increases respondent to burden when time and effort on the respondent Respondents need to be articulate Responses can be inappropriate or vague whitethorn threaten respondent Responses have different levels of detail there are too galore(postnominal) a(prenominal) or too limited response categories ? Bias responses against categories excluded in the choices ? Difficult to detect if the respondent misinterpreted the question 2. 2. . 2 Response Categories for Close-ended Questions 1. Two-way Question provides only two alternative answers from which the respondent can chose simulation exhaust you ever traveled outside the country by any means of transportation? Yes No 2. twofold-choice Question provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can only choose one. Example What is your marital status? Never Married Divorced/Separated Married Widowed 3. Checklist Question provides more than two alternatives from which the respondent can choose as some(prenominal) responses that apply to him/her.Example What kind/s of novel do you like to read? Comedy Romance Fantasy Sci-Fi annoyance Non-fiction My stery Others, please specify ____________ JDEUSTAQUIO 11 4. Ranking Question provides categories that respondents have to either arrange from highest to lowest or vice versa depending upon a particular criterion. Example Below is a list of considerations in choosing and buying a new lap spend. Put number (1) beside the quality that you prioritize the most, (2) for the second priority and so on. treasure Brand Quality Durability Style Novelty Warranty . Rating Scale Question provides a graded scale showing all possible directions and intensity of attitude of a respondent on a particular question or statement. Example How satisfied are you on the teaching method of your instructor in this course? 1 Very Dissatisfied 2 Dissatisfied 3 Neutral 4 satisfy 5 Very Satisfied 6. Matrix Question a type of question which places various questions together to save quadriceps femoris in the questionnaire. It is like having any of the five earlier types of questions and squeeze play more than one question in a form of a table.Example For each statement, please indicate with a checkmark whether you agree or disagree with it Statements Statistics is a very difficult subject Only few people could understand Statistics I would rather sleep than study Statistics at home Agree disagree JDEUSTAQUIO 12 2. 2. 2. 3 Pitfalls to Avoid in Wording Questions 1. Avoid Vague Questions State all question clearly. All respondents must have the same interpretation to a question. If not, their answers will not be comparable, making it difficult to analyze their responses. Example How often do you watch a movie in a movie theatre?Very Often Often Not too often Never Problem The word often is vague. Instead, you may ask how many times did he/she watched a movie last month. 2. Avoid Biased Question A biased question influences the respondents to choose a particular response over the other possible responses. Whether the bias is caused accidentally or intentionally, the data wo uld become useless because it still failed to transgress the truth. Example There are many different types of sport like badminton, basketball, billiards, bowling and tennis. Which type of sport d you enjoy watching?Problem The sports mentioned in the first sentence will be in the top of the minds of the respondents. It is likely for the respondents to choose from among these sports. This will result in a bias against the sports not mentioned in the list. 3. Avoid Confidential and Sensitive Questions These questions ordinarily offend the pride or jeopardize the prestige of the respondent. Example Do you bring home place supplies? If yes, how often do you bring home office supplies? Problem The question may sound offensive to the pride of the respondent. 4.Avoid Questions that are difficult to answer Do not ask questions that are too difficult for the respondent to answer truthfully. Such questions would only encourage respondents to guess their answers, if not totally refuse to answer the question. Example If you are the president of the nation, what are you breathing out to do to attain economic recovery? JDEUSTAQUIO 13 5. Avoid Questions that are confusing or perplexing to answer Sometimes a poorly create verbally question can confuse the respondent on how to answer the question Example Did you eat out and watch a movie last spend?Problem This is a double-barreled question, where you combine two or more question in to a single question. You should opt to separate this question into two to avoid confusion. 6. Keep the Questions short and simple Long and complicated question can be difficult to understand. The respondent may lose interest in the question because of its length or might have problem comprehending very long statement needed to understand the question. 2. 3 Sampling and Sampling Techniques 2. 3. 1 Basic Concepts As we have discussed on the previous Chapter 1, sample is the subset of a population.Some people think that if we are basing ou r analysis on samples, why dont we just guess our analysis entirely without any data? This question could be partially answered by a quote from Sir Charles Babbage, the Father of the sum upr who verbalise that, erroneousnesss using inadequate data are much less than those using no data at all. So now, before we can talk about the different sample distribution grantion procedures, we need to familiarize ourselves first with some terms. The target population is the population we requisite to study The sampled population is the population from where we actually select the sampleIt is good if the target and the sampled population have the same collection of elements. The problem is that often times in life, expectations do not golf stroke well with reality. One example where the target and the sampled population would be different from each other is the case where the target population is the collection of all the residents of Metro Manila. If we would be using a telephone directory to select our sample, this collection would be very different from the target population since this would exclude all the residents that have no landline.JDEUSTAQUIO 14 The sampling frame or frame is a list or map showing all the sampling units in the population. In any statistical inquiry, whether the data will come from a census or from a sample, it is important that we are conscious of all the possible errors that we introduce (hopefully not intentionally) in the results of the study. In order for us to do this and reduce these errors, we need to understand the possible sources of errors, namely, the sampling errors and the nonsampling errors.Sampling error is the error attributed to the variation present among the computed values of the statistic from the different possible samples representing of n elements. Nonsampling errors is the error from other sources apart from sampling fluctuations Note that the ONLY TIME that the sampling error would not be present is if we have con ducted a census. However, census results are NOT ERROR-FREE. census and samples can both have nonsampling errors (simply the errors not brought solely by sampling). Total Error Nonsampling Error Error in the implementation of the sampling design Measurement Error Sampling ErrorSelection Error Instrument Error Frame Error Population condition Error Response Error Processing Error Interviewer Bias Surrogate Information Error Diagram of the Various Sources of Error JDEUSTAQUIO 15 2. 3. 2 Methods of luck Sampling Probability Sampling is a method of selecting a sample wherein each element in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being include in the sample otherwise, it is a non opportunity sampling method. ? A nonzero chance of inclusion means that the sampling procedure must give all the elements of the sample population an opportunity of being a part of the sample.All of the elements that belong in the sampled population must be included in the selection process. ? Another re quirement of fortune sampling is that we should be able to determine the chance that an element will be included in the selected sample. Take note that the probability of each element in the sampled population need not be equal to each other. 2. 3. 2. 1 Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Sampling (SRS) is a probability sampling method wherein all possible subsets consisting of n elements selected from the N elements of the population have the same chances of selection.In simple stochastic sampling without replacement (SRSWOR), all the n elements in the sample must be distinct from each other. In simple random sampling with replacement (SRSWR), the n elements in the sample need not be distinct, that is, an element can be seleceted more than once as a part of the sample. The most apparent example of SRSWOR that we could see every day on mass media is the National lottery where the numbers that would be drawn must be distinct and every number should have an equal chance of being se lected in the draw. JDEUSTAQUIO 16 Visual representation of Simple Random Sampling without Replacement. 2. 3. 2. 2 differentiate SamplingStratified sampling is a probability sampling method where we divide the population into nonoverlapping subpopulations or strata, and then select one sample from each stratum. The sample consists of all the samples in the different strata. Stratified sampling, in general, simply requires the division of the population into nonoverlapping strata, wherein each element of the population needs to belong to exactly one stratum. Then each sample would be selected form the strata using any probability sampling method. If simple random sampling used for each sample in the strata then this sampling is called separate random sampling.JDEUSTAQUIO 17 Visually, it might look something like the image below. With our population, we can easily separate the individuals by color. Once we have the strata determined, we need to decide how many individuals to select from each stratum. The most common practice is that the number selected should be proportional. In our case, 1/4 of the individuals in the population are blue, so 1/4 of the sample should be blue as well. Working things out, we can see that a stratified (by color) random sample of 4 should have 1 blue, 1 green and 2 red. JDEUSTAQUIO 18 2. 3. 2. 3 Systematic SamplingSystematic sampling is a probability sampling method wherein the selection of the first element is at random and the selection of the other elements in the sample is systematic by taking every kth element from the random start, where k is the sampling interval To select a sample using systematic sampling, we need to perform the following steps 1. Decide on a method of assigning a anomalous serial number, from 1 to N, to each one of the elements in the population. 2. Choose n = sample size so that it is a divisor of N = population size. Compute for the sampling interval k = N/n. 3.Select a number from 1 to k, using a ra ndomization machine. Denote the selected number by r. The element in the population assigned to this number is the first element of the sample. 4. The other elements of the sample are those assigned to the numbers r + k, r + 2k, r +3 k, and so on, until you get a sample size of n. 5. In case that k = N/n is not a whole number the first element would still be r but would be a randomly chosen number from 1 to N instead k as used on the previous step. By visual explanation, so to use systematic sampling, we need to first order our individuals, then select every kth.In our example, we want to use 3 for k? Can you see why? Think what would happen if we used 2 or 4. JDEUSTAQUIO 19 For our starting point, we pick a random number between 1 and k. For our visual, lets suppose that we pick 2. The individuals sampled would then be 2, 5, 8, and 11. 2. 3. 2. 4 Cluster Sampling Cluster sampling is a probability sampling method wherein we divide the population into nonoverlapping groups or cluste rs consisting of one or more elements, and then select a sample of clusters. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters.To select a sample using cluster sampling, we need to perform the following steps 1. Divide the population into nonoverlapping clusters. 2. Number the clusters in the population from 1 to N. 3. Select n distinct numbers from 1 to N using a randomization mechanism. The selected clusters are the clusters associated with the selected numbers 4. The sample will consist of all the elements in the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is often confused with stratified sampling, because they both involve groups. In reality, theyre very different. In stratified sampling, we split the population up into groups (strata) based on some characteristic.In essence, we use cluster sampling when our population is already broken up into groups (clusters), and each cluster represents the population. That way, we just select a certain number of clusters. JDEUST AQUIO 20 With our visual, lets suppose the 12 individuals are paired up just as they were sitting in the original population. Since we want a random sample of size four, we just select two of the clusters. We would number the clusters 1-6 and use technology to randomly select two random numbers. It might look something like this JDEUSTAQUIO 21 2. 3. 2. 5 Multistage SamplingMultistage sampling is a probability sampling method where there is a hierarchical configuration of sampling units and we select a sample of these units in stages. Unlike all the other previously presented sample selection procedures where the process of sampling takes place in a single phase, we accomplish the selection of the elements in the sample under multistage sampling after several stages of sampling. We first partition the population into non-overlapping primary stage units (PSUs) and select a sample of PSUs. We then subdivide the selected PSUs into non-overlapping second-stage units (SSUs) and select a s ample of SSUs.We continue the process until we identify the elements in the sample at the last stage of sampling. For example, consider a light-bulb example using two-stage sampling procedure. Lets suppose that the bulbs come off the assembly line in boxes that each contains 20 packages of four bulbs each. One strategy would be to do the sample in two stages Stage 1 A quality declare engineer removes every 200th box coming off the line. (The plant produces 5,000 boxes daily. (This is systematic sampling. ) Stage 2 From each box, the engineer then samples three packages to inspect. (This is an example of cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3 Methods of Nonprobability Sampling All sampling methods that do not satisfy the requirements of probability sampling are considered as nonprobability sampling selection procedures. These methods do not make use of randomization mechanism in identifying the sampling units included in the sample. It allows the researcher to choose the units in the sample sub jectively. And since the sample selection is subjective, there is really no way to evaluate the reliability of the results without so much assumptions (remember assumptions are very prone to mistakes). JDEUSTAQUIO 22Despite this drawback of nonprobability sampling, these methods are still more commonly used since it is less costly and easier to administer. Here are some of the most basic nonprobability sampling selection procedures 2. 3. 3. 1 Haphazard or Convenience Sampling In haphazard or convenience sampling, the sample consists of elements that are most accessible or easier to contact. This usually includes friends, acquaintances, volunteers, and subject who are available and willing to participate at the time of the study. The most common example that we could see on the television is the text polls about a certain issue.This type of sampling the opinion of the people doesnt involve randomization mechanism in the selection of the units in the sample. This is sometimes referre d to as the nonprobability counterpart of simple random sampling. 2. 3. 3. 2 Judgement or Purposive Sampling The elements are carefully selected to provide a representative sample. Studies have demonstrated that selection bias can arise even with expert choice but that the method may be appropriate for very small samples when the expert has a good deal of information about the population-elements. The two common features of the method are a. sampling units often consist of relatively large groups and, b. ) sampling units are chosen so that they will provide accurate estimates for important control variables for which results are known for the whole population and its hoped that it will give good estimates for other variables that are highly correlated with the control variables. This sampling method may be considered as the nonprobability counterpart of Cluster sampling. 2. 3. 3. 3 Quota Sampling This is considered as the nonprobability counterpart of stratified sampling. In this m ethod, interviewers are assigned quotas of respondents of different types to interview.The quotas are sometimes chosen to be in proportion to the estimated population figures for various types, often based on past census data. The researcher also chooses the groups or strata in the study but the selection of the sampling units within the stratum does not make use of a probability sampling method. JDEUSTAQUIO 23 2. 4 instauration of Data After data collection, we organize and analyze the data, and then we present the results of our analysis in some form that will allow us to reveal and highlight the important information that we were able to extract.Unless we do this, we will only get lost in huge mound of numbers and labels that we have collected. Our grade school teachers already taught us this various kinds of presenting the data so why do we need to study this again? We may be familiar with the line graph and the bar map but we need to learn or review the basic principles of p repareing a good table and a good graph. With good data presentation, we can discover, and even explore possible relationships. Poor data presentation will only mislead, deceive, and misinform.It is therefore essential that we remember to put a more conscious effort to use these different methods of presentation properly in order to maximize data description and analysis. 2. 4. 1 Textual institution Textual Presentation of data incorporates important figures in a paragraph of text. In textual presentation, it aims to direct the readers attention to some data that need particular vehemence as well as to some important comparisons and to supplement with a narrative account from a table or a chart. It could also show the summary measures like minimum, maximum, totals and percentages.We do not need to put all figures in a textual presentation we just have to select the most important ones that we want to focus on. Example The Philippine Stock Exchange composite index lost 7. 19 points to 2,099. 12 after get going between 2,095. 30 and 2,108. 47. Volume was 1. 29 billion shares worth 903. 15 million pesos (16. 7milliondollars). The broader all share index gained 5. 21 points to 1,221. 34. (From Free mandated March 17, 2005) When the data become voluminous, the textual presentation is strongly not advised because the presentation becomes almost incomprehensible.JDEUSTAQUIO 24 2. 4. 2 tabular Presentation Tabular Presentation of data arranges figures in a systematic manner in rows and chromatography columns. Tabular presentation is the most common method of data presentation. It can be used for various purposes such as description, comparison, and even showing relationships between two or more variables of interest. We will discuss three types of presenting in tabular form, namely attracter Work, Text Tabulation and Formal Statistical table which is categorized according to their format and layout. Leader WorkLeader work has the simplest layout among the three types of tables. It contains no table title or column headings and has no table borders. This table needs an introductory or descriptive statement so that the reader can understand the given figures. The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follows a 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b 42,070,660 48,098,460 60,703,206b 68,616,536b 76,498,735 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad.In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, troops camps, etc. As you can see, the above table would not be clear without the introductory statement. Likewise, both have no table numbers that we can use to refer to these figures. Thus, we use the leader work when there are only one or two columns of figures that we can incorporate as part of the textual presentation for a more unionized presentation. Text Tabu lat io n The format of text tabulation is a little bit more complex than leader work.It already has column headings and table borders so that it is easier to understand than leader work. However it still does not have table title and table number. Thus, it also requires an introductory statement so that the readers can comprehend the given figures. Similar to leader work, we can place special explanatory statement in the footnote. JDEUSTAQUIO 25 The Population in the Philippines for the Census Years 1975 to 2000 is as follow a Year 1975 1980 1990 1995 2000 a b No. of Filipinos (in thousands) 42,070. 66 48,098. 46 60,703. 21b 68,616. 54b 76,498. 4 National Statistics Office The 1990 and 1995 figures include the household population, homeless population, and Filipinos in Philippines embassies and mission abroad. In addition, the census comprise institutional population found living quarters such as penal institutions, orphanages, hospitals, mi litary camps, etc. Form al Statistical Table The formal statistical table is the most complete type of table since it has all the different and essential parts of a table like table number, table title, head note, box head, stub head, column headings, and so on.It could be a stand-alone table since it does not need any accompanying texts and it could be easily understood on its own. Heading consists of the table number, title and head note. It is located on top of the table of figures. i. Table number is the number that identifies the position of the table in a sequence. ii. Table title states in telegraphic form of the subject, data classification, and place and period covered by the figures in the table. iii. Head note appears below the title but above the top cross rule of the table and provides additional information about the table.Box head consists of spanner heads and columns heads. i. Spanner head is a caption or label describing two or more column heads. ii. mainstay head is a label that describes the figures in a column. iii. Panel is a set of column heads under the same spanner head. Stub consists of row captions, vegetable marrow head, and stub head. It is located at the left side of the table. i. Row caption is a label that describes the figures in a row. ii. Center head is a label describing a set of row captions. iii. Stub head is a caption or label that describes all of the center heads and row captions.It is located on the first row. iv. Block is a set of row captions under the same center head. JDEUSTAQUIO 26 Table number Stub head Title Head note Table 10. 9 Employed Persons by Major Industry sort out January 2008 October 2010 (in thousands) Panel Heading Spanner head Column head Industry Group Oct Total Agriculture Center head Agriculture, Hunting and Forestry Fishing 36,488 12,265 10,769 1,496 5,375 197 3,058 163 1,957 18,550 2010 Jul Apr 36,237 12,244 10,760 1,484 5,409 194 3,003 141 2,071 18,585 35,413 11,512 10,073 1,439 5,487 212 3 ,063 137 2,075 18,414 Jan 6,001 11,806 10,351 1,455 5,322 193 3,009 157 1,963 18,872 Oct 35,478 12,072 10,563 1,509 5,154 169 2,937 160 1,888 18,250 2009 Jul Apr 35,508 11,940 10,476 1,464 5,273 177 2,947 145 2,004 18,294 34,997 12,313 10,841 1,472 5,088 166 2,841 130 1,951 17,595 Jan 34,262 11,846 10,446 1,400 4,856 152 2,849 134 1,721 17,560 Oct 34,533 12,320 10,860 1,460 5,078 176 2,897 123 1,882 17,135 2008 Jul Apr 34,593 12,103 10,695 1,408 5,130 154 2,960 146 1,870 17,360 33,535 11,904 10,450 1,454 5,000 151 2,883 123 1,843 16,630 Jan 33,693 11,792 10,409 1,383 4,981 152 2,963 126 1,740 16,919Industry Mining nd Quarrying Manufacturing Electricity, Gas and Water reflexion Services Wholesale & Retail Trade, Repair of Motor Vehicles, Motorcycles & Personal & Household Goods Hotels and Restaurants Transport, Storage and Communication Financial Intermediation Real Estate, Renting and Business Activities common Administration & Defense, Compulsory Social Security Education Health and Social Work Other Community, Social & Personal Service Activities Private Households with Employed Persons Extra-Territorial Organizations & Bodies 7,158 7,030 6,885 7,064 6,901 ,725 6,681 6,635 6,528 6,599 6,322 6,333 1,119 2,711 412 1,239 1,037 2,704 420 1,166 991 2,741 383 1,061 1,104 2,735 384 1,119 1,012 2,735 375 1,100 1,064 2,694 376 1,090 976 2,628 389 1,023 988 2,660 337 1,044 941 2,587 373 985 984 2,525 369 969 924 2,575 366 953 964 2,674 364 904 lug 1,771 1,165 465 855 1,954 1 1,835 1,238 457 866 1,831 1 1,959 1,156 447 984 1,804 3 1,823 1,146 432 949 2,114 2 1,771 1,168 412 868 1,908 0 1,772 1,157 428 876 2,110 2 1,794 1,068 408 907 1,718 3 1,659 1,157 435 857 1,785 3 1,690 1,096 406 796 1,733 * 1,741 1,076 386 847 1,863 1 ,661 1,028 384 843 1,572 2 1,612 1,083 390 846 1,747 2 Notes 1. Data were taken from the results of the quarterly rounds of the drudge Force Survey (LFS) using past week as reference peri od. 2. Details may not add up to totals due to rounding. 3 . The definition of unemployment was revise starting the April 2005 round of the LFS. As such, LFPRs, employment rates and unemployment rates are not comparable with those of previous survey rounds. Also starting with January 2007, estimates were based on 2000 Census-based projections. 4. Data are as of January 2012. / preliminary source note Source National Statistics Office (NSO). footnote JDEUSTAQUIO 27 2. 4. 3 Graphical Presentation Tabular Presentation of data portrays numerical figures or relationships among variables in pictorial form. The graph or statistical chart is a very powerful tool in presenting data. It is an important medium of communication because we can create a pictorial representation of the numerical figures found in tables without showing too many figures. We construct graphs not only for presentation purposes but also as an initial step in analysis.The graph, as a tool for analysis, can exhibit possible associations among the variables and can facilitate th e comparison of different groups. It can also reveal trends over time. The different types of statistical charts are line chart, just bar chart, even bar chart, pictograph, pie chart, and statistical map. It is important to know when and how to use these different charts. The selection of the correct type of chart depends upon the specific objective, the characteristic of the users, the kind of data, and the type of invention and aterial on hand. Line Chart The line chart is useful for presenting historical data. This chart is effective in showing the movement of a series over time. As shown in the figures below, the movement can be increasing, decreasing, stationary, or could be fluctuating. Title at Top Scale figures for y- axis 20 No. of Accidents involving Company B during their Years of Service No. of Accidents Scale label for y-axis 15 10 Grid lines 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Footnote Source Note Years of Service Scale label for x-axisScale figures for x-axis JDEUSTAQUIO 28 N EVER use line charts/graphs that are too stretched either flatly or vertically, for it may mislead the person looking at the graph and interpret it as something that it is not really representing. JDEUSTAQUIO 29 Types of Line Chart Simple Line Chart This has only one curve and is appropriate for one series of time data. Multiple Line Chart This type of line chart shows two or more curves. We use this if we wish to oppose the trends in two or more data series.Although the use of Multiple Line Chart is now commonly used, it should be taken notice the number of series that you include in a graph, if there are a lot of series in a single chart, it might become too confusing to see. Number of Daily Responses (Example of undivided Line Chart) JDEUSTAQUIO 30 Co lu m n Chart We use the column charts to compare amounts in a time series data. The emphasis in a column chart is on the differences in magnitude rather than the movement of a series. ? We can also use the column chart to graph the frequence distribution of a quantitative variable.We call this chart a absolute frequency histogram. ? For time series data, we arrange the columns on the even axis in chronological order, starting with the earliest date. Title at Top Grid lines Scale label for y-axis Scale figures for x-axis Scale figures for y-axis The proportions of the columns must be just right. Columns must not be too wide or too narrow. The space between the bars must also be just right. Usually, the space between bars is around one-fourth of the width of the column. It is also advisable to use scale figures that are multiples of 5.If the observed values are so small, we can use multiples of 1 or 2. JDEUSTAQUIO 31 Horizontal Bar Chart Its use is appropriate when we wish to show the distribution of categorical data. We use the horizontal bar chart so we can compare the magnitudes for the different categories of a qualitative variable. We place the categories of the qualitative variable on the yaxis. Th is will be more practical than placing the categories on the x-axis because there is more space for text labels on the y-axis. Just like the column charts, the bars should not be too wide, too narrow, too long and nor too short. Arranging the bars according to length usually facilitates comparisons. It may be decreasing or ascending order. ? If there are Others category, we always place this as the first or the last category. ? If the categorical variables have a natural ordering, such as a rating scale, then we should retain the order of the categories in the scale instead of arranging the bars according to length. ? We should always choose appropriate colors or patterns for the bars. We should avoid selecting ruffled and weird patterns since this will only produce an optical illusion.JDEUSTAQUIO 32 Pie Chart It is a circle divided into several roles. Each section indicates the proportion of each component or category. This is useful for data sorted in to categories for a specifi c period. The purpose is to show the component parts with respect to the total in terms of the percentage distribution. The components of the pie chart should be arranged according to magnitude. If theres an Others category, we put it in the last section. We use different colors, blending, or patterns to distinguish one section of the pie to the other sections.We piece the biggest slice at 12 oclock. If we want to emphasize a particular sector of the pie chart, we may inflate that slice by detaching it from the rest of the sectors. The pie chart is applicable for qualitative rather than quantitative data. However, if the variable has too many categories (more than 6), we should use the horizontal bar chart rather than the pie chart. JDEUSTAQUIO 33 Pictograph o It is like a horizontal bar chart but instead of using bars, we use tokens or pictures to represent the magnitude. o The purpose of this chart is to get the attention of the reader. The pictograph provides an overall pictur e of the data without presenting the exact figures. o Usually, we can only show approximate figures in a pictograph since we have to round off figures to whole numbers. It still allows the comparison of different categories even if we just present only the approximate values. o The choice for the symbol or picture should be apt for the type of data. It should be selfexplanatory, interesting, and simple. Statistical Maps ? ? ? ? ? This type of chart shows statistical data in geographical areas. This could also be called as crosshatched maps or shaded maps.Geographic areas may be barangays, cities, districts, provinces, and countries. The figures in the map can be ratios, rates, percentages, and indices. We do not use the absolute values and frequencies in statistical maps. JDEUSTAQUIO 34 Types of Statistical Maps ? Shaded Map map that makes use of shading patterns. The shading pattern indicates the degree of magnitude. It usually runs gradually from dark to light (Darker shading of the map usually means larger magnitude). ? Dot map chart that gives either the location or the number of establishments in a certain geographical area.The example below is a dot map of the number of people with Hispanic decent in the US. JDEUSTAQUIO 35 2. 5 Organization of Data The first step in data analysis is organizing the collected data. In its organized form, important features of the data become clear and apparent. The two common forms of organized data are the array and the frequency distribution 2. 5. 1 Raw Data and Array Raw Data are data in their original form. The actual data that we collect from surveys, observation, and experimentation are what we call raw data. Raw data have not yet been organized or processed in any manner.Example Raw Data of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 79 62 74 79 81 65 79 94 75 52 73 85 78 82 83 79 73 81 88 81 74 60 92 86 86 60 90 64 57 63 88 63 87 69 77 53 76 52 72 89 66 56 57 92 82 66 70 72 73 63 88 77 60 97 70 92 67 92 50 65 72 74 79 51 86 55 67 66 79 95 60 93 66 99 89 94 97 78 55 79 77 92 93 92 50 65 79 62 56 77 53 72 57 62 80 79 76 82 74 76 Array is an ordered arrangement of data according to magnitude. We also refer to the array as sorted data or ordered data Arranging the observations manually according to magnitude is very tedious especially if we are dealing with voluminous data.Thus, it is more convenient to use computer programs to sort the data. The array is not a summarized data set. It is simply an ordered set of observations. We consider both the raw data and array as ungrouped data. JDEUSTAQUIO 36 Example Array of the Final Grades of 100 Selected Students who took Stat 101 50 50 51 52 52 53 53 55 55 56 56 57 57 57 60 60 60 60 62 62 62 63 63 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 66 66 67 67 69 70 70 72 72 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 76 76 76 77 77 77 77 78 78 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 79 80 81 81 81 82 82 82 83 85 86 86 86 87 88 88 88 89 89 90 92 92 92 92 92 92 93 93 94 94 95 97 97 99 2. 5. fre quence diffusion (FDT) The frequency distribution (FDT) is a way of summarizing data by showing the number of observations that belong in the different categories or classes. We also refer to this as grouped data. The frequency distribution is another way of organizing the data. It is a summarized form of the raw data or array wherein we do not see the actual observed values anymore. The two general forms of frequency distribution are single-value grouping and grouping by class intervals 1. Single-value grouping is a frequency distribution where the classes are the distinct values of the variable.This is applicable for data with only a few unique values. 2. Grouping by Class Intervals is a frequency distribution where the classes are the intervals. Example Suppose we have data on the number of children of 50 married women using any modern contraceptive method. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 JDEUSTAQUIO 37 Since there are only 6 unique values in the data set, then we use single-value grouping, Distribution of Married Women Using Any Modern Method of Contraceptive by Number of Children No. of Children 0 1 2 3 4 5Number of Married Women 7 8 11 14 8 2 Concepts related to Frequency Distribution 1. Class Interval is the range of values that belong in the class or category. 2. Class Frequency is the number of observations that belong in a class interval. 3. Class Limits are the end numbers used to define the class interval. The lower class limit (LCL) is the lower end number while the upper class limit (UCL) is the upper end number. 4. Open Class Interval is a class interval with no lower class limit or no upper class limit. 5. Class Boundaries are the true class limits.If the observations are rounded figures, then we identify the class boundaries based on the standard rules of rounding as follows the lower class terminus ad quem (LCB) is halfway between the lower class limit of the class a nd the upper class limit of the preceding class while the upper class landmark (UCB) is halfway between the upper class limit of the class and the lower class limit of the next class. 6. Class size is the size of the class interval. It is the difference between the upper class boundaries of the class and the preceding class or the difference between the lower class boundaries of the next class and the class. . Class Mark is the midpoint of a class interval. It is the average of the lower class limit and the upper class limit or the average of the lower class bound and upper class boundary of a class interval. JDEUSTAQUIO 38 After learning the concepts that we need to construct a frequency distribution table, we can now list down the steps in constructing a frequency distribution table. Determine the adequate number of classes denoted by K Step 1 We can use the Sturgess rule to approximate the number of classes which is given by K = 1+ 3. 322(log n) Determine the range, R = high est observed value smallest observed Step 2 value Compute for the pre-class size C = R/K Step 3 Determine the class size, C, by rounding-off C to a convenient Step 4 number Choose the lower class limit of the first class. Make sure that the smallest Step 5 observation will belong in the first class. disceptation the class intervals. Determine the lower class limits of the suceeding classes y adding the class size to the lower class limit of the previous class. The last lass Step 6 should include the largest observation. Step 7 Tally all the observed values in each class interval Sum the frequency column and check against the total number of Step 8 observations After constructing the basic frequency distribution table, we could now add some other components to it that would help us in the analysis of the data. o o Relative Frequency is the class frequency divided by the total number of observations Relative Frequency Distribution per centum (RFP) is relative frequency multi plied by 100. JDEUSTAQUIO 39 The relative frequency and RFP show the proportion and percentage of observations falling in each class. The RFP allows us to compare two or more data sets with different totals.The sum of the RFP column is one hundred percent (100%). Another component that could be added to the FDT is the cumulative frequency distribution which is comprised of two components. o o The less than cumulative frequency distribution (CFD) shows the number of observations with values higher than or equal to the lower class boundary. Example Using the data of the Grades of 10o Students who took Stat 101, we would construct the frequency distribution table with the extra components RF, RFP CFD. First, we will compute for K using the Sturges rule, K = 1 + (3. 322*log n) = 1 + (3. 322*log 100) = 1 + (3. 322 *2) = 7. 644 ? Secondly, we compute for the range, R R = max. value min. value = 99 50 = 49 Third, compute for C and eventually C C = R / K = 49 / 8 = 6. 125 ? 7 Now we can c reate the FDT for the data set, Class Limits LCL 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 UCL 56 63 70 77 84 91 98 105 Class Boundaries LCB 49. 5 56. 5 63. 5 70. 5 77. 5 84. 5 91. 5 98. 5 UCB 56. 5 63. 5 70. 5 77. 5 84. 5 91. 5 98. 5 105. 5 Frequency f 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 n=100 Class Mark x 53 60 67 74 81 88 95 102 RF f/n 0. 11 0. 13 0. 13 0. 19 0. 19 0. 11 0. 13 0. 01 RFP % 11 13 13 19 19 11 13 1 CFD 11 24 37 56 75 86 99 100 CFD CFD 100 89 76 63 44 25 14 1JDEUSTAQUIO 40 Graphical Presentation of the Frequency Distribution We can effectively interpret the frequency distribution when displayed pictorially since more people understand and comprehend the data in graphic form. In this section we would discuss the various method of presenting the frequency distribution in graphical form. 1. Frequency Histogram The frequency histogram shows the overall picture of the distribution of the observed values in the dataset. It displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the class frequ encies on the vertical axis. The frequency histogram shows the shape of the distribution.The area under the frequency histogram corresponds to the total number of observations. The tallest vertical bar shows the frequency of the class interval with the largest class frequency. 2. Relative Frequency/ Relative Frequency Percentage Histogram The RF or RFP histogram displays the class boundaries on the horizontal axis and the relative frequencies or RFPs of the class intervals on the vertical axis. It represents the relative frequency of each class by a vertical bar whose raising is equal to the relative frequency of the class. The shape of the relative frequency histogram and frequency histogram are the same.JDEUSTAQUIO 41 3. Frequency Polygon For the frequency polygon, plot the class frequencies at the midpoint of the classes and connect the plotted points by means of straight lines. Since it is a polygon we need to close the ends of the graph. To close the polygon, add an additional class mark on both ends of the graph wherein both ends have the frequency of 0. The advantage of the frequency polygon over the frequency histogram is that it allows the construction of two or more frequency distributions on the same plot area. This facilitates the comparison of the different frequency distributions.The frequency polygon also exhibits the shape of the data distribution. JDEUSTAQUIO 42 4. Ogives The ogive is the plot of the cumulative frequency distribution. This graphical representation is used when we need to determine the number of observations below or above a particular class boundary. The less than ogive is the plot of the less than cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries. On the other hand, the greater than ogive is the plot of the greater than cumulative frequencies against the lower class boundaries. Connect the successive points by straight lines.If we superimpose the less than and greater than ogives, the point of intersection gives us t he value of the median. The median divides the ordered observations into two equal parts. JDEUSTAQUIO 43 Summary Measures Part 1 3. 1 Measures of Central Tendency The average is the popular term that is used to refer to a measure of primal tendency. Most are already accustomed to thinking in terms of an average as a way of representing the collection of observations by a single value. For instance, we often use the average pee-pee to represent the scores in the exam of all students in a class.We can say that if the average score is high, then we conclude that the class performed well. The average could also be used to compare the performance of two groups based on the average of both groups and equivalence which one has the higher average. The most common measure of central tendency is the arithmetic mean. The two other measures of central tendency that we will present in this section are the median and the mode. All of these measures aim to give information about the center of the data or distribution. 3. 1 . 1 Summation NotationThe meat notation provides a compact way of writing the formulas for some of the summary measures that would be discussed in this section. The capital Greek letter sigma,? is the mathematical symbol that represents the process of summation. The symbol, ? is equal to X1 + X2 + X3 + + Xn where Xi = value of the variable for the ith observation i = index of the summation (the letter below ? ). 1 = lower limit of the summation (the number below ? ). n = upper limit of the summation (the letter above ? ). We read ? as summation of X sub i, where I is from 1 to n.JDEUSTAQUIO 44 S